Shamanism represents humanity's oldest spiritual technology—a set of techniques for entering altered states of consciousness to communicate with spirits, journey to other realms, diagnose and heal illness, retrieve lost souls, guide the dead, influence weather, divine the future, and maintain the balance between the human community and the spirit world. Found in remarkably similar forms across indigenous cultures worldwide, shamanism may be the root from which all later magical and religious traditions branched.
The word "shaman" comes from the Tungusic (Siberian) word šaman, meaning "one who knows" or "one who is excited, moved, raised." While the term originated in Siberia, the practice exists globally: the angakkuq of the Inuit, the curandero of Latin America, the sangoma of Southern Africa, the bomoh of Malaysia, and countless others represent local expressions of the same core techniques and worldview.
The defining feature of shamanism is the ecstatic journey—the shaman's spirit travels to non-ordinary reality while their body remains in ordinary reality. This is distinct from:
During the journey, the shaman's consciousness travels to the Upper World (celestial realms), the Lower World (underworld/earth realms), or the Middle World (the spiritual aspect of ordinary reality). There they meet helping spirits, retrieve information or lost soul parts, battle malevolent entities, and perform healing work.
Access: Ascending (climbing tree, mountain, rainbow, ladder of light)
Inhabitants: Celestial beings, elevated ancestors, divine entities, teachers of cosmic wisdom
Qualities: Light, ethereal, structured, often geometric or crystalline
Purposes: Gaining wisdom, spiritual teaching, understanding cosmic patterns, meeting divine guides
Access: Descending (through hollow tree, cave, hole in earth, body of water)
Inhabitants: Power animals, nature spirits, earth guardians, ancient ancestors
Qualities: Earthy, primal, organic, lush, often wild and natural
Purposes: Healing, retrieving power, connecting with animal allies, grounding work, earth wisdom
Access: Lateral movement (horizontal journey in spirit form)
Inhabitants: Nature spirits, ghosts, ancestors, spirits of place, some tricksters
Qualities: Similar to ordinary reality but perceived with spiritual vision
Purposes: Finding lost objects, divination about current events, communication with recently dead, nature magic
One does not simply choose to become a shaman. The calling typically comes through:
A common theme across shamanic cultures is the initiatory crisis—the future shaman experiences (in vision or serious illness) being torn apart by spirits, reduced to bones, reconstituted with new organs or powers, and reborn as a bridge between worlds. This death-and-rebirth grants the ability to journey safely to the realms of the dead and return.
Examples include: bones being counted and reassembled, body being boiled in a cauldron, being devoured by animals and remade, internal organs removed and replaced with quartz crystals or sacred stones. The candidate may experience this as psychotic break, serious illness, or powerful vision— and must survive it to become a functioning shaman.
The fundamental shamanic practice is the spirit journey, undertaken to obtain healing, information, or power. The basic technique remains remarkably consistent across cultures:
The shamanic drum is not merely a musical instrument but a vehicle for journeying. Called "the shaman's horse" in Siberian traditions, the drum's steady beat entrains brainwaves to theta frequency (4-7 Hz), the state associated with deep meditation, REM sleep, and shamanic trance.
One of the most important shamanic concepts is the power animal (also called tutelary spirit, guardian animal, or nagual). These are spiritual allies in animal form who lend their power, wisdom, and protection to the shaman and their clients.
Power animals are NOT:
Power animals ARE:
In shamanic understanding, illness or misfortune often results from "power loss"—the person has lost connection to their power animal. The shaman journeys to retrieve the animal and return it to the client:
In shamanic cosmology, trauma causes parts of the soul to split off and flee to non-ordinary reality for protection. While this is initially a survival mechanism (dissociation in psychological terms), if soul parts don't return, the person experiences depression, absence, chronic illness, or feeling "not fully present." Soul retrieval is the shaman's journey to find and return these lost fragments.
The complement to soul retrieval is extraction—removing spiritual intrusions that cause illness. In shamanic diagnosis, illness has spiritual causes: either something is missing (soul part, power animal) or something harmful is present (intrusion, negative energy, spirit attachment).
The shaman perceives the intrusion (may appear as darkness, foreign object, entity, or "gunky" energy) and removes it through:
After extraction, the area must be filled with beneficial energy (soul part, power animal energy, light) or it may attract another intrusion. This is why extraction and retrieval often work together.
One of the shaman's oldest functions is serving as psychopomp—guide of souls to the afterlife. When someone dies traumatically, suddenly, or in confusion, their soul may not transition properly and becomes a "ghost" stuck in the Middle World, often causing problems for the living.
Psychopomp work extends to: helping souls cross at death, clearing haunted locations, assisting suicides or trauma victims in transition, ensuring peaceful death for the dying.
Shamans employ various methods to obtain information from the spirit world:
Many shamanic traditions include shapeshifting—the shaman's ability to take on animal form, either spiritually (in journey) or (according to tradition) physically. This represents ultimate mastery of transformation and connection with the animal powers.
The shaman's primary tool and "vehicle." Traditional drums are made from natural materials (animal hide, wood frame), often decorated with power symbols. The drum may have its own spirit and require feeding/honoring.
Types: Frame drums (most common), double-headed drums, hand drums
Size: 12-18 inches diameter typical, deep enough tone to induce trance
Used to call spirits, mark ritual transitions, cleanse energy, and sometimes induce trance (though less effectively than drums). The rattling sound is believed to attract helping spirits.
Materials: Gourds with seeds/stones, turtle shells, animal hooves, manufactured with beads or shot
Used to direct smoke during smudging, to "seal in" power after healing, and to fan away intrusions. Often made from power bird (eagle, hawk, owl, turkey vulture).
Note: Eagle feathers require permits in US; alternatives widely available
Special clothing that marks the shaman's role and contains power. May include: animal skins, feathers, bones, bells, mirrors, fringe, masks, headdresses. Each item often has specific meaning and spirit attached.
Collection of sacred items carrying spiritual power: crystals, stones, bones, feathers, shells, artifacts. Kept in medicine bundle or laid out as altar (mesa in Andean tradition). Each object has its own story and power.
Carved or natural wood representing the axis mundi (world tree). Used for pointing, directing energy, marking sacred space, and as symbol of authority. Often decorated with power symbols, feathers, crystals.
Sacred pipe (particularly in Plains Native American traditions) used for prayer, ceremony, and sealing agreements. Smoke carries prayers to spirits. Requires proper training and respect to use.
Warning: Cultural appropriation concern; non-Natives should approach with extreme respect if at all
Quartz and other crystals seen as solidified light, containing healing power. Used in extraction healing, divination, power storage. Some shamanic initiations involve spirit implantation of crystals into the shaman's body.
Hollow bone, reed, or manufactured tube used in extraction healing to suck out intrusions. Must be cleansed thoroughly after each use. Some traditions use mouth directly, others always use a tool.
Use: Powerful purification, clearing negative energies, blessing space
Caution: Over-harvesting concern; use respectfully and sustainably
The most commonly used smudge in contemporary shamanic practice, though many alternatives exist.
Use: Blessing, calling in good spirits, sealing sacred space after cleansing
Braided and burned after sage; "sage drives out bad, sweetgrass calls in good"
Sacred to many Native American traditions; sweet vanilla-like scent
Use: Protection, purification, honoring
Particularly associated with Pacific Northwest and some Plains traditions. Protective and grounding.
Use: Sacred offering, purification, ceremony
Tree resin sacred in Mesoamerican traditions (Aztec, Maya). Burned on charcoal, creates abundant sweet smoke. Particularly good for journeying.
Use: Cleansing, healing, raising vibration
South American "holy wood," sweet and uplifting. Should only be harvested from naturally fallen branches.
Use: Sacred offering, prayer carrier, protection
Natural tobacco (not cigarettes) offered to spirits, land, directions. One of oldest sacred plants in Americas. Carries prayers to spirit world.
The original context for the word "shaman," Siberian traditions (Evenki, Yakut, Buryat, etc.) represent classic shamanism:
Key Spirits: Ancestor spirits, nature spirits (masters of animals, places), helping spirits, sometimes a supreme sky god
Developed by anthropologist Michael Harner based on cross-cultural shamanic practices, Core Shamanism attempts to extract universal techniques applicable to modern practitioners:
Controversy: Some indigenous practitioners view this as appropriation or oversimplification. Others see it as respectful distillation allowing others to access shamanic consciousness.
Enormous diversity across hundreds of nations, but some common elements:
Important: Many Native American spiritual practices are closed to outsiders or require proper invitation and training. Respect boundaries.
South American shamanism, particularly in the Amazon, features:
Contemporary: Ayahuasca tourism brings seekers from worldwide, raising questions about commercialization, safety, and cultural integrity.
Korean shamanic tradition with predominantly female practitioners:
Related to Siberian shamanism but with distinct features:
Author: Mircea Eliade
Date: 1951 (English 1964)
Significance: The foundational academic study of shamanism, surveying practices worldwide and establishing shamanism as a distinct religious phenomenon. While some conclusions dated, remains essential reading for understanding shamanic universals.
Author: Michael Harner
Date: 1980
Significance: The book that launched modern neo-shamanism and Core Shamanism. Harner, trained anthropologist and initiated shaman, presents practices stripped of cultural specifics for Western practitioners. Includes practical exercises, theory, and cultural context. Essential starting point despite criticisms of cultural decontextualization.
Editor: V. Diószegi and M. Hoppál
Date: 1978
Significance: Collection of papers by Russian and Hungarian ethnographers documenting Siberian shamanic practices. More academic but provides authentic source material from the cultures where "shaman" originated.
Author: Sandra Ingerman
Date: 1991
Significance: Clear, compassionate guide to soul retrieval practice, one of the core shamanic healing techniques. Ingerman, trained in Core Shamanism, provides theory, technique, and case studies. Essential for anyone interested in shamanic healing.
Author: Sandra Ingerman
Date: 2004 (includes CD with drumming)
Significance: Accessible introduction to journey work with guided exercises and drumming track. Perfect starting point for those wanting to experience shamanic journey before committing to training.
Authors: Ross Heaven and Howard G. Charing
Date: 2006
Significance: Exploration of Amazonian plant shamanism and working with plant spirits. Includes interviews with shamans, discussion of ayahuasca, and techniques for connecting with plant teachers safely.
Author: Evelyn C. Rysdyk
Date: 2013
Significance: Comprehensive course in shamanic practice covering journeying, power animals, extraction, soul retrieval, psychopomp work, and integration. Well-organized with exercises building on each other.
Author: John G. Neihardt (Black Elk's account)
Date: 1932
Significance: Lakota holy man Black Elk's life story and visions. While mediated through Neihardt and later criticized for some inaccuracies, remains powerful account of Native American spiritual life and visionary experience. The vision at Harney Peak is profound shamanic journey narrative.
Author: Sudhir Kakar
Date: 1982
Significance: Psychoanalyst's examination of Indian healing traditions including shamanic practices. Bridges academic psychology and traditional healing, showing how shamanic techniques work from Western psychological perspective.
Author: Michael Taussig
Date: 1987
Significance: Anthropological study of shamanism in colonial contexts, particularly South America. Examines how shamanic practices respond to and resist colonialism. Challenging but important for understanding shamanism in historical context.
Editors: Mariko Namba Walter and Eva Jane Neumann Fridman
Date: 2004
Significance: Comprehensive two-volume reference covering shamanic traditions worldwide. Academic but accessible, with contributions from multiple scholars. Excellent resource for comparative study.