Oracle bone divination, known as "jiaguwen" (甲骨文, literally "shell-bone script"), represents
the earliest systematically documented form of Chinese divination and the oldest substantial
corpus of Chinese writing. Practiced primarily during the late Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE),
this method involved inscribing questions on animal bones or turtle plastrons (lower shells),
applying heat to create cracks, and interpreting the resulting patterns as answers from
ancestral spirits and deities.
The discovery of oracle bones represents one of the most significant archaeological finds in
Chinese history. In 1899, scholar Wang Yirong noticed ancient script on "dragon bones" sold
as traditional medicine in Beijing pharmacies. Recognizing these as ancient writing, he traced
them to the village of Xiaotun near Anyang in Henan Province—the site of Yin, the last Shang
capital. Subsequent excavations have unearthed over 150,000 oracle bone fragments, providing
extraordinary insight into Shang Dynasty religion, politics, daily life, and the development
of Chinese writing.
Historical Significance
Oracle bones serve triple significance in Chinese studies: they provide the earliest examples
of Chinese writing (precursor to modern characters), they document actual Shang Dynasty
events enabling historical verification, and they reveal religious and divinatory practices
at the foundation of Chinese civilization. The inscriptions transformed the legendary Shang
Dynasty from myth to confirmed history, validating ancient texts like the Records of
the Grand Historian.
Materials and Preparation
Turtle Plastrons
Turtle shells, particularly the lower shell (plastron), were highly prized for divination.
The turtle's association with longevity, stability, and cosmic order made it spiritually
significant. The most common species used was the Chinese softshell turtle (Pelodiscus
sinensis), though rarer species were also employed for important divinations.
Turtle plastrons required extensive preparation: cleaning, smoothing the surface, and creating
hollow depressions (known as "zans") on the underside where heat would be applied. The shell's
structure—naturally divided into sections—provided a framework for organizing multiple
divinations on a single plastron.
Cattle Scapulae
Shoulder blades (scapulae) from cattle were the most common oracle bones, particularly oxen
and water buffalo. These large, flat bones provided ample surface area for inscriptions and
created dramatic cracks when heated. The bones underwent similar preparation: cleaning,
smoothing, and creating depressions for heat application.
Other materials occasionally used included deer antlers, pig bones, and sheep scapulae, though
these were less common and typically reserved for specific types of questions or less formal
divinations.
Purpose and Scope of Divination
Oracle bone divination served as the primary method for Shang royal decision-making and
communication with the spirit world. Questions addressed:
Military Affairs: Campaign timing, battlefield strategy, likelihood of victory
Royal Health: Illness causes, treatment success, childbirth outcomes
Dreams: Interpretation of royal dreams and omens
Ancestral Communication: Requests for blessing or clarification of ancestral will
Construction: Building timing, architectural decisions
Astronomy: Interpretation of celestial phenomena
Practice & Methods
The Divination Process
1
Question Formulation
The diviner (often called a "wu" or "zhen") received the question from the king or
high official. Questions were typically formulated as binary propositions that could
receive affirmative or negative answers. Often, both positive and negative versions
were asked to confirm the response.
2
Inscription of the Charge
The question (called the "charge" or "prognostication") was carved into the prepared
bone or shell before the heat application. This inscription typically included:
The cyclical date (using the 60-day ganzhi cycle)
The diviner's name
The actual question or proposition
Sometimes the topic or category of divination
3
Heat Application (Pyromancy)
A heated bronze rod or burning piece of wood was applied to the prepared hollows on
the underside of the bone or shell. The sudden application of intense heat caused the
material to crack on the upper surface, creating distinctive patterns—typically a
vertical crack with shorter horizontal branches, resembling the Chinese character 卜
(bu, meaning "divination").
4
Crack Interpretation
The diviner examined the resulting cracks, interpreting their direction, length,
clarity, and pattern. While specific interpretation rules remain partially unclear,
factors considered included:
Crack straightness versus irregularity
Length and prominence of main crack lines
Number and position of branch cracks
Sound produced during cracking
Relationship between multiple cracks on the same bone
5
Prognostication Inscription
After interpreting the cracks, the diviner inscribed the answer or interpretation
alongside the original question. This "prognostication" represented the spiritual
communication received through the cracks.
6
Verification Inscription
In many cases, after the predicted event occurred or failed to occur, a verification
statement was added to record the actual outcome. This practice created a historical
record and helped maintain the credibility of the divinatory system.
Reading Oracle Bone Inscriptions
Script Characteristics
Oracle bone script represents the earliest stage of Chinese writing, featuring:
Pictographic elements: Many characters clearly depict the objects they represent
Directional flexibility: Text could be read left-to-right, right-to-left, or
vertically, depending on bone orientation
Character variation: Same words often written with different character forms
Abbreviated forms: Complex concepts sometimes simplified for carving ease
Ritual language: Formal, ritualized phrasing following established conventions
Example Inscription Format
Preface: "Crack-making on [day], [diviner's name] asked:"
Charge: "The king will hunt at [location]; will there be catches?"
Prognostication: "Auspicious. The king followed this. He indeed caught [number] deer."
Verification: "The tenth moon. The king actually caught three foxes, one wildcat."
This format demonstrates the complete cycle from question to verification, creating both a
divinatory record and historical document.
Types of Divination Questions
Paired Propositions
To test the reliability of the oracle and eliminate ambiguity, diviners often asked both positive
and negative versions of the same question:
"The harvest will be good" paired with "The harvest will not be good"
"Rain will come in ten days" paired with "Rain will not come in ten days"
Sequential Divinations
Complex situations required multiple related questions in sequence, building understanding
through successive inquiries:
"Is the king's illness caused by Ancestor [name]?"
"Should we sacrifice ten oxen to Ancestor [name]?"
"Will the sacrifice on [date] be acceptable?"
Dream Divinations
Royal dreams were considered communications from spirits requiring interpretation through
oracle bones. Questions asked whether dreams were auspicious, which deity sent them, and
what action they required.
Cultural Context & Royal Practice
The Divination Bureaucracy
Oracle bone divination was not a casual practice but a highly organized state institution.
The Shang court maintained:
Specialized Diviners: Professional class trained in bone preparation,
heat application, and crack interpretation
Scribes: Experts in oracle bone script who carved the inscriptions
Bone Workshops: Facilities for preparing turtle shells and animal bones
Archives: Storage of used oracle bones for reference and record-keeping
Hierarchical Access: Different ranks could ask different types of questions
Royal Monopoly
During the Shang Dynasty, oracle bone divination was primarily a royal prerogative. The king
personally participated in major divinations, sometimes applying the heat himself for critical
questions. This exclusive access reinforced royal authority as the intermediary between the
human and spiritual realms.
Lesser nobility and regional lords might conduct simpler bone divinations, but the elaborate
system of inscription and verification found at Anyang represented the pinnacle of the practice,
reserved for the royal court.
Decline and Transformation
Zhou Dynasty Shift
When the Zhou Dynasty overthrew the Shang (c. 1046 BCE), oracle bone divination gradually
declined in importance. The Zhou preferred yarrow stalk divination using the I Ching
system, which they promoted as more sophisticated and aligned with their philosophical emphasis
on virtue and moral order rather than simple spirit communication.
Continuity in Popular Practice
Despite elite abandonment, simplified forms of bone divination continued among common people
for centuries. Crack divination using various heated materials persisted in folk tradition,
though without the elaborate inscriptions and verification system of Shang royal practice.
Archaeological Discoveries
Major Finds
Location
Period
Significance
Xiaotun, Anyang
Late Shang (c. 1250-1046 BCE)
Largest deposit; over 100,000 pieces; royal divinations
Dating Precision: Some inscriptions difficult to date precisely within Shang period
Connection to Chinese Writing
Oracle bone script represents a fully developed writing system, suggesting earlier evolution
whose traces have not survived. Approximately 5,000 different characters appear in oracle bone
inscriptions, of which about 1,500 have been reliably identified and connected to later Chinese
characters.
The continuity from oracle bone script to modern Chinese characters demonstrates remarkable
linguistic stability. Many fundamental characters—numbers, kinship terms, celestial bodies,
common animals—remain recognizable after 3,000 years of evolution.
Primary Sources & Further Reading
Primary Collections and Catalogues
Jiaguwen Heji (甲骨文合集, Collection of Oracle Bone Inscriptions)
Edited by Guo Moruo et al. (1978-1983)
The most comprehensive collection of oracle bone rubbings and transcriptions, containing
41,956 inscribed pieces across 13 volumes. Standard reference for oracle bone research,
though in Chinese. Essential for serious study.
Keightley, David N. Sources of Shang History: The Oracle-Bone Inscriptions
of Bronze Age China (1978)
Foundational English-language work analyzing oracle bone inscriptions as historical sources.
Examines the divination process, content of inscriptions, and what they reveal about Shang
society, politics, and religion.
Royal Ontario Museum Collection (Toronto)
Significant collection of oracle bones outside China, with published catalogues and studies.
Accessible to Western researchers and includes detailed documentation.
Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica (Taiwan)
Major repository of oracle bones excavated during 1928-1937 Republican-era excavations.
Published numerous scholarly catalogues and research papers.
Historical and Analytical Studies
Keightley, David N. The Ancestral Landscape: Time, Space, and Community in
Late Shang China (2000)
Comprehensive analysis of Shang worldview, religion, and social structure as revealed
through oracle bone inscriptions. Examines ancestor worship, concepts of time, and the
role of divination in creating cosmic order.
Shaughnessy, Edward L. (ed.). New Sources of Early Chinese History: An
Introduction to the Reading of Inscriptions and Manuscripts (1997)
Scholarly volume including chapters on oracle bone inscriptions, bronze inscriptions,
and early manuscripts. Provides methodology for reading and interpreting early Chinese
texts.
Flad, Rowan K. "Divination and Power: A Multiregional View of the Development
of Oracle Bone Divination in Early China" Current Anthropology Vol. 49, No. 3
(2008)
Archaeological and anthropological analysis of oracle bone divination's development,
distribution, and relationship to political authority in ancient China.
Chang, Kwang-chih. Shang Civilization (1980)
Comprehensive study of Shang Dynasty archaeology and culture, with extensive discussion
of oracle bones as both divination tools and historical records. Integrates material
culture with inscriptional evidence.
Linguistic and Paleographic Studies
Boltz, William G. The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing
System (1994)
Linguistic analysis of early Chinese script, including extensive examination of oracle
bone characters, their structure, and evolution into later forms of Chinese writing.
Qiu Xigui. Chinese Writing (translated by Gilbert L. Mattos and Jerry
Norman, 2000)
Authoritative work by leading Chinese paleographer on the history and development of
Chinese writing, beginning with oracle bone script. Detailed character analysis and
historical context.
Religious and Philosophical Context
Eno, Robert. "The Background of the Shang and Early Zhou Ritual Revolution"
in The Magnitude of Ming: Command, Allotment, and Fate in Chinese Culture
(1990)
Analysis of Shang religious thought and divinatory practices in context of early Chinese
concepts of destiny, divine command, and cosmic order.
Allan, Sarah. The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China
(1991)
Explores the symbolic significance of turtles in Chinese cosmology and why turtle shells
were considered ideal for divination. Connects oracle bone practice to broader mythological
and cosmological frameworks.
Pankenier, David W. Astrology and Cosmology in Early China: Conforming Earth
to Heaven (2013)
Examines astronomical and cosmological references in oracle bone inscriptions, showing how
divination connected earthly events with celestial patterns.
Accessible Introductions
Childs-Johnson, Elizabeth. "The Ghost Head Mask and Metamorphic Shang Imagery"
Early China Vol. 23-24 (1998-1999)
Accessible scholarly article examining Shang religious imagery including representations
found on oracle bones, explaining symbolic systems to non-specialists.
Smith, Adam Daniel. "Divination and Chinese Statecraft: The Department of
Astrological and Meteorological Observation in Western Han China" in Time and
Eternity (2011)
Traces the evolution of state divination from Shang oracle bones through later imperial
bureaucratic forms, showing historical continuity and transformation.