Solomon's Temple (First Temple)
Jerusalem, Israel
Historical Overview
Solomon's Temple, also known as the First Temple (Hebrew: בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ הָרִאשׁוֹן, Beit HaMikdash HaRishon), was the first holy temple of the ancient Israelites, built in Jerusalem during the reign of King Solomon around 957 BCE. It served as the primary center of Israelite worship and housed the Ark of the Covenant in its innermost sanctuary, the Holy of Holies. The Temple stood for approximately 370 years until its destruction by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II in 586 BCE.
The Temple was built on Mount Moriah (the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite, purchased by David for 50 shekels of silver), believed to be the site where Abraham prepared to sacrifice Isaac (the Akedah) and where Jacob dreamed of a ladder reaching to heaven. According to Jewish tradition, this was also the Foundation Stone (Even Shetiyah) from which the world was created. King David had originally planned to build the Temple after bringing the Ark to Jerusalem, but God, through the prophet Nathan, decreed that his son Solomon would be the one to construct it, as David had "shed much blood" and been "a man of war" (1 Chronicles 22:8). Nevertheless, David amassed enormous wealth for the project—100,000 talents of gold and 1 million talents of silver according to 1 Chronicles 22:14—and organized the priestly and Levitical divisions that would serve in the Temple.
King Solomon, son of David and Bathsheba, ascended to the throne around 970 BCE after a succession crisis involving his half-brother Adonijah. According to biblical accounts, Solomon prayed at the ancient sanctuary of Gibeon, where God appeared to him in a dream offering to grant any request. Solomon asked for "a discerning heart to govern your people," which pleased God so much that He also granted Solomon wealth, honor, and long life (1 Kings 3:9-14). The young king's legendary wisdom became proverbial—he authored 3,000 proverbs and 1,005 songs, and "spoke about plant life, from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop" (1 Kings 4:32-33). Rulers from distant lands, including the Queen of Sheba, came to Jerusalem to hear his judgments and marvel at his court's splendor.
The construction took seven years (c. 967-960 BCE, in the 4th through 11th years of Solomon's reign) and employed a massive workforce described in meticulous detail in 1 Kings 5-6 and 2 Chronicles 2-4. Solomon conscripted 30,000 men from Israel who worked in monthly shifts in Lebanon (10,000 per month, allowing two months at home between shifts), along with 70,000 carriers, 80,000 stonecutters in the mountains, and 3,300 (or 3,600 according to 2 Chronicles) foremen overseeing the work. The project required unprecedented international cooperation: King Hiram of Tyre, an ally of David and friend to Solomon, provided cedar and cypress timber from the forests of Lebanon, along with skilled Phoenician craftsmen renowned throughout the ancient world. In exchange, Solomon supplied Hiram with 20,000 cors (approximately 125,000 bushels) of wheat and 20 cors of pressed olive oil annually throughout the construction period.
The master craftsman Hiram-Abi (also called Huram-Abi), son of a Tyrian bronze worker and an Israelite mother from the tribe of Naphtali (or Dan according to 2 Chronicles), was brought from Tyre to oversee the intricate metalwork. He was "filled with wisdom, understanding, and skill for making any work in bronze" (1 Kings 7:14) and created the two great pillars Jachin and Boaz, the enormous Bronze Sea, the ten bronze lavers, and countless vessels and furnishings. Materials were imported from throughout the ancient world: cedar and cypress from Lebanon (floated as rafts down the Mediterranean coast to Joppa, then transported overland 35 miles to Jerusalem), gold from Ophir (possibly in Arabia, East Africa, or India—420 talents for the Temple), precious stones, algum wood (possibly red sandalwood), and massive dressed stones quarried locally from the limestone hills around Jerusalem.
The foundation stones were enormous—some measuring 15 cubits (about 22.5 feet) long. The stones were so precisely cut and dressed at the quarry that "neither hammer nor axe nor any tool of iron was heard in the temple while it was being built" (1 Kings 6:7). This remarkable construction technique maintained the sanctity of the site, as iron was associated with warfare, bloodshed, and the curse upon the earth after the Fall. The Talmud records that Solomon possessed the miraculous shamir worm (or stone), a creature "no bigger than a barleycorn" that could cut through stone with its gaze, bequeathed to Solomon by Asmodeus, king of demons. Modern scholars suggest the silent construction may indicate pre-fabrication of all components at external sites.
The Temple's completion in 960 BCE (the 11th year of Solomon's reign, in the month of Bul, the 8th month) was followed by an elaborate dedication ceremony that lasted fourteen days, coinciding with and extending beyond the Feast of Tabernacles (Sukkot). Solomon offered 22,000 cattle and 120,000 sheep and goats in sacrifice—a staggering number that required the consecration of the middle of the courtyard as additional altar space, since the bronze altar was insufficient for all the offerings (1 Kings 8:64). When the Ark of the Covenant was brought into the Holy of Holies beneath the wings of the golden cherubim, the glory of the Lord (Shekhinah) filled the Temple in a cloud so dense that the priests could not stand to minister (1 Kings 8:10-11). Fire descended from heaven to consume the offerings, and all the people fell prostrate, worshiping and praising: "He is good; his love endures forever" (2 Chronicles 7:3). Solomon delivered his famous prayer of dedication from a bronze platform in the courtyard, acknowledging that even the highest heaven cannot contain God, yet asking Him to hear prayers offered toward this place.
King David conquers Jerusalem and plans to build a temple; purchases threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite on Mount Moriah
Solomon ascends to throne after succession crisis; God grants him wisdom at Gibeon
Construction begins; treaty with King Hiram of Tyre for cedars of Lebanon and skilled craftsmen
Temple completed after seven years; Ark installed in Holy of Holies; fourteen-day dedication with 22,000 cattle and 120,000 sheep sacrificed
Egyptian Pharaoh Shishak (Shoshenq I) plunders temple treasures during reign of Solomon's son Rehoboam after kingdom divides
King Joash repairs Temple using chest for collection of funds; priest Jehoiada oversees restoration
Prophets Isaiah, Amos, and Hosea warn of coming judgment; call for justice over empty rituals
King Hezekiah strips gold from temple doors to pay tribute to Assyrian King Sennacherib; Jerusalem miraculously saved from siege
King Josiah's reforms; Torah scroll discovered in Temple during repairs; major restoration and return to covenant faithfulness
Babylonians defeat Egypt at Carchemish; Judah becomes Babylonian vassal; Daniel taken to Babylon
First Babylonian siege; King Jehoiachin surrenders; temple treasures and nobles (including Ezekiel) taken to Babylon
Final Babylonian siege lasts 18 months; city walls breached on 9th of Tammuz; Temple burned on 9th of Av (Tisha B'Av), 586 BCE
Temple systematically demolished; bronze pillars, sea, and vessels broken up and carried to Babylon; Ark of the Covenant disappears; Jerusalem destroyed
Architectural Features
The Temple complex was a magnificent architectural achievement that incorporated the finest materials and craftsmanship of the ancient world. Its design reflected both practical religious needs and profound symbolic meanings, with each element carefully prescribed in biblical texts.
📐 Dimensions & Layout
- Main building: 60 cubits long, 20 cubits wide, 30 cubits high (approximately 90 x 30 x 45 feet)
- Three main sections: Ulam (porch), Heikhal (main hall), and Devir (Holy of Holies)
- Holy of Holies: Perfect cube of 20 x 20 x 20 cubits
- Surrounded by three-story side chambers for storage
- Large courtyard with various auxiliary structures
🌟 Materials & Decoration
- Walls lined with cedar from Lebanon
- Floors covered with cypress wood
- Interior overlaid with pure gold
- Carved cherubim, palm trees, and flowers throughout
- Precious stones and bronze work adorning fixtures
🕯️ Holy of Holies
- Housed the Ark of the Covenant
- Two massive cherubim of olive wood overlaid with gold
- Wings of cherubim spanned 20 cubits wall to wall
- Separated from main hall by veil and doors
- Entered only once per year by High Priest on Yom Kippur
🔱 Temple Furnishings
- Bronze Sea: Massive basin held by twelve bronze oxen
- Ten bronze lavers for ritual washing
- Golden altar of incense
- Ten golden lampstands (menorahs)
- Table of showbread with twelve loaves
- Bronze altar for burnt offerings in courtyard
🏛️ Pillars of Jachin & Boaz
- Two bronze pillars flanking temple entrance
- Each 18 cubits high with capitals of 5 cubits
- Jachin (right): "He establishes"
- Boaz (left): "In Him is strength"
- Decorated with pomegranates and lily work
🌳 Courtyard Complex
- Inner court for priests (Court of Priests)
- Outer court for worshippers (Court of Israel)
- Separate women's court
- Storage chambers along walls
- Gates oriented to cardinal directions
Religious & Mythological Significance
Solomon's Temple represented the physical dwelling place of God on Earth (Hebrew: שכינה, Shekhinah - Divine Presence). It served as the central point of contact between the divine and human realms, where sacrifices were offered, prayers were heard, and festivals were celebrated. The Temple embodied the covenant between God and the people of Israel, manifesting divine order in physical form.
🕊️ The Ark of the Covenant
The Temple's most sacred element was the Ark of the Covenant, containing:
- Two tablets inscribed with the Ten Commandments
- Aaron's rod that budded
- A pot of manna from the wilderness
- The mercy seat (kapporet) where God's presence dwelt
- Two golden cherubim facing each other above the Ark
The Ark disappeared after the Temple's destruction, becoming one of history's greatest mysteries and the subject of countless legends and searches.
🔥 Sacrificial System
- Daily burnt offerings (tamid) morning and evening
- Sin offerings for atonement (chatat)
- Peace offerings (shelamim)
- Grain offerings (mincha)
- Special sacrifices for festivals and holy days
- Only Aaronic priests could perform sacrifices
📅 Major Festivals
- Passover (Pesach): Spring pilgrimage festival
- Shavuot: Feast of Weeks, wheat harvest
- Sukkot: Feast of Tabernacles, fall harvest
- Yom Kippur: Day of Atonement, High Priest enters Holy of Holies
- Rosh Hashanah: New Year, blowing of shofar
👑 Priestly Service
- Descendants of Aaron served as priests (kohanim)
- Levites assisted in temple service
- High Priest wore special garments including ephod and breastplate
- Twenty-four priestly divisions rotated weekly service
- Strict purity laws governed temple service
Associated Figures & Deities
YHWH (Yahweh)
The God of Israel, whose divine presence (Shekhinah) dwelt in the Holy of Holies above the Ark of the Covenant
King Solomon
Builder of the Temple, renowned for wisdom. Son of David and Bathsheba, third king of Israel
King David
Planned the Temple and gathered materials, though forbidden to build it due to being a warrior
Angels & Cherubim
Celestial beings depicted throughout the Temple, guardians of the divine throne
Moses
Received the Torah and Ark of the Covenant, which found its permanent home in Solomon's Temple
Aaron
First High Priest, ancestor of all priests who served in the Temple
Rituals & Ceremonies
🌅 Daily Temple Service
- Morning Tamid: First sacrifice at dawn with accompanying prayers
- Incense Offering: Twice daily burning of sacred incense blend
- Menorah Lighting: Lamps trimmed and lit daily
- Showbread Renewal: Fresh loaves placed every Sabbath
- Evening Tamid: Final sacrifice before sunset
- Levitical Choir: Psalms sung during offerings
📿 Yom Kippur Ritual
- High Priest performs five ritual immersions
- Confession of sins over two goats
- One goat sacrificed, blood sprinkled in Holy of Holies
- Scapegoat (Azazel) sent into wilderness bearing sins
- High Priest speaks the sacred name of God (YHWH)
- People prostrate when Name is pronounced
🌾 Harvest Festivals
- Firstfruits: Barley offering at Passover
- Shavuot: Two wheat loaves brought to Temple
- Sukkot Libations: Water drawing ceremony
- Four Species: Procession with lulav and etrog
- Simchat Beit HaShoevah: Celebration of water drawing
🎺 Musical Worship
- Levitical choirs sang psalms during sacrifices
- Instruments: lyres, harps, cymbals, trumpets
- Specific psalms assigned to each day of week
- Special music for festivals and new moons
- Priestly trumpets signaled ritual moments
🧼 Purification Rites
- Ritual bathing in mikvaot before entering
- Washing hands and feet at bronze lavers
- Ashes of red heifer for purification from death
- Offerings for various states of impurity
- Nazarite purification ceremonies
👶 Life Cycle Events
- Pidyon haben (redemption of firstborn)
- Purification offerings after childbirth
- Nazirite vow completion ceremonies
- Thank offerings for recovery from illness
- Personal votive offerings
Destruction & Legacy
The destruction of Solomon's Temple in 586 BCE by the Babylonian army under Nebuchadnezzar II was one of the most traumatic events in Jewish history. The prophets had warned that Israel's idolatry and injustice would lead to catastrophe, but the loss of the Temple—the physical manifestation of God's presence—devastated the nation. The Temple treasures were looted, the building was burned, and the walls were torn down. The Ark of the Covenant disappeared and has never been recovered.
🔥 The Destruction
- Babylonian siege lasted 18 months
- Temple burned on the 9th of Av, 586 BCE
- All gold, silver, and bronze taken as plunder
- Building systematically demolished
- Priests and nobles executed or exiled
- Fate of Ark of the Covenant unknown
📖 Literary Legacy
- Book of Lamentations mourns the destruction
- Psalms reflect Temple worship traditions
- Prophets interpret meaning of catastrophe
- Ezekiel's vision of restored Temple
- Detailed architectural descriptions preserved
🏛️ Second Temple Period
- Second Temple built 516 BCE after exile
- Expanded by Herod the Great (20 BCE)
- Lacked Ark, sacred fire, Urim & Thummim
- Destroyed by Romans in 70 CE
- Western Wall survives as remnant
✡️ Jewish Mourning Traditions
- Tisha B'Av fast commemorates destruction
- Glass broken at weddings in remembrance
- Prayers face Jerusalem and Temple Mount
- Messianic hope for Third Temple
- Liturgy preserves Temple service memory
✝️ Christian Significance
- Jesus taught and worshipped in Second Temple
- Temple veil torn at Jesus's crucifixion
- Jesus's body called "temple" (John 2:19-21)
- Early church met in Temple courts
- Believers seen as spiritual temple (1 Peter 2:5)
☪️ Islamic Tradition
- Solomon (Sulayman) honored as prophet
- Dome of the Rock built on Temple Mount
- Al-Aqsa Mosque third holiest site in Islam
- Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif) revered
- Legends of Solomon's wisdom and power
The Second Temple Period (516 BCE - 70 CE)
After seventy years of Babylonian exile, the Jewish people returned to Jerusalem and rebuilt the Temple, inaugurating the Second Temple period that would last nearly 600 years. This era witnessed dramatic transformations in Jewish thought, the emergence of various sects, Greek and Roman occupation, the ministry of Jesus, and ultimately another catastrophic destruction—this time by the Romans in 70 CE. The Second Temple, especially after Herod's massive expansion, became one of the ancient world's architectural marvels, yet it lacked several sacred elements present in Solomon's Temple.
Cyrus the Great conquers Babylon; issues decree allowing Jews to return and rebuild Temple; returns temple vessels
First wave of exiles returns under Zerubbabel (governor) and Joshua (high priest); altar re-established
Temple foundation laid amid mixed emotions—older priests weep remembering Solomon's Temple
Construction halted due to opposition from Samaritans and local adversaries
Prophets Haggai and Zechariah urge renewal of building; work resumes
Second Temple completed and dedicated; modest compared to First Temple but functional
Ezra the scribe arrives with second wave; brings Torah scroll; institutes reforms
Nehemiah rebuilds Jerusalem walls; Temple service formalized
Alexander the Great conquers region; Hellenistic period begins
Antiochus IV Epiphanes desecrates Temple; sacrifices pig on altar; triggers Maccabean Revolt
Judah Maccabee recaptures Temple; cleansed and rededicated (origin of Hanukkah)
Roman General Pompey conquers Jerusalem; enters Holy of Holies (shocked to find it empty)
Herod the Great becomes king of Judea under Roman authority
Herod begins massive Temple expansion and renovation project
Jesus ministers in Temple; drives out money changers; teaches in courts
Temple construction finally completed—just seven years before destruction
First Jewish-Roman War; Zealots occupy Temple; Roman siege under Titus
Romans breach walls; Temple set ablaze; systematic destruction; only Western Wall retaining wall survives
Bar Kokhba Revolt; brief Jewish independence; Romans ban Jews from Jerusalem; build pagan temple on site
🏗️ Zerubbabel's Temple
- Built 520-516 BCE by returning exiles
- More modest than Solomon's Temple
- Used Cyrus's financial support
- Older priests wept, remembering former glory
- Served for nearly 500 years
- Lacked the Ark, Urim & Thummim, sacred fire
✨ What Was Missing
- Ark of the Covenant (lost in 586 BCE)
- Sacred fire from heaven
- Urim and Thummim (priestly oracles)
- Anointing oil (formula lost)
- Spirit of prophecy (according to Talmud)
- Divine cloud/Shekhinah glory visible presence
👑 Herod's Expansion
- Began 20 BCE; completed 63 CE
- Doubled the Temple Mount platform
- Massive retaining walls with huge stones
- Some stones weigh over 400 tons
- Created largest religious structure of ancient world
- Workers trained as priests to enter holy areas
🏛️ Herodian Architecture
- Temple proper similar dimensions to Solomon's
- Surrounded by vast courts and porticoes
- Court of Gentiles (outermost)
- Women's Court
- Court of Israel (Jewish men)
- Court of Priests with altar
- Royal Stoa—magnificent covered colonnade
📚 New Developments
- Rise of synagogues throughout diaspora
- Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes emerge
- Oral Torah develops alongside written
- Sanhedrin as ruling council
- Apocalyptic literature flourishes
- Greek translation (Septuagint)
🔥 Roman Destruction
- 70 CE during First Jewish-Roman War
- Titus besieged Jerusalem for months
- Soldiers set Temple ablaze
- Gold melted between stones; soldiers pried apart
- Literally "not one stone upon another" (Luke 21:6)
- Treasures paraded in Roman Triumph; depicted on Arch of Titus
The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE was as traumatic as the first destruction 656 years earlier. This time, however, the Jewish people would not return to rebuild. The Temple Mount remained in ruins until the 7th century, when Muslims built the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque on the site. The loss of the Temple forced a radical transformation of Judaism from a temple-centered religion of sacrifice to a synagogue-centered religion of prayer and study—a transformation that shapes Judaism to this day.
Modern Significance & Research
The Temple Mount (Hebrew: Har HaBayit; Arabic: al-Haram al-Sharif) remains one of the most contested and sacred sites in the world. Archaeological investigation is extremely limited due to religious and political sensitivities. The site is managed by the Islamic Waqf, while the Western Wall plaza serves as a Jewish prayer site. The Temple continues to play a central role in Jewish liturgy, eschatology, and identity.
🔍 Archaeological Evidence
- Western Wall: retaining wall from Herodian expansion
- Warren's Gate: underground passage to Temple Mount
- Temple Mount Sifting Project: analyzing rubble
- First Temple period artifacts found in City of David
- Hezekiah's tunnel and Siloam Pool discoveries
- Inscriptions mentioning Temple and priesthood
🕊️ Modern Jewish Observance
- Daily prayers face toward Temple Mount
- Amidah includes prayers for Temple restoration
- Western Wall serves as prayer site
- Bar/Bat Mitzvah ceremonies at Western Wall
- Temple Institute recreating sacred vessels
- Red heifer breeding program for purification
🏛️ Third Temple Movement
- Some Jews believe in rebuilding the Temple
- Temple Institute training potential priests
- Architectural plans developed
- Ritual objects reconstructed
- Others see Temple as metaphor or future miracle
- Controversial due to political implications
📚 Scholarly Debates
- Exact location of Holy of Holies disputed
- Historical accuracy of biblical descriptions
- Dating of construction and destruction
- Relationship to other ancient temples
- Phoenician architectural influences
- Fate of Temple treasures and Ark
🌐 Interfaith Significance
- Sacred to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
- Source of interfaith dialogue and tension
- UNESCO World Heritage Site debates
- International peace process implications
- Shared Abrahamic heritage
🎨 Cultural Influence
- Freemasonry symbolism and architecture
- Medieval cathedral designs inspired by Temple
- Literature: Milton, Blake, countless others
- Film: Indiana Jones, National Treasure
- Music: Handel's "Solomon", countless settings
- Art: countless depictions and reconstructions
Visitor Information
📍 Temple Mount
- Access: Limited non-Muslim access via Mughrabi Gate
- Hours: Very limited visiting hours (check current)
- Rules: Modest dress required, no prayer by non-Muslims
- Note: Site of Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque
- Restrictions: Subject to sudden closures
🙏 Western Wall (Kotel)
- Access: Open 24/7 for prayer
- Sections: Separate men's and women's areas
- Customs: Head covering (kippah) for men
- Activities: Prayer, Bar/Bat Mitzvahs, written prayers
- Tours: Western Wall tunnels by reservation
🏛️ Related Sites
- City of David: Archaeological park south of Temple Mount
- Temple Institute Museum: Recreated Temple vessels
- Tower of David Museum: Jerusalem history
- Davidson Center: Archaeological finds
- Church of Holy Sepulchre: Christian holy site
ℹ️ Practical Tips
- Dress modestly (covered shoulders, knees)
- Expect security checks at all sites
- Photography restrictions at some locations
- Consider guided tours for historical context
- Be respectful of active worship
- Check current political situation before visiting
Related Topics & Further Exploration
Explore Connections
Discover related temples and archetypal themes:
Sources & Further Reading
Primary Sources:
- The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh): 1 Kings 5-8, 2 Chronicles 2-7, Ezekiel 40-48
- Flavius Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews, The Jewish War
- Mishnah: Tractate Middot (Temple measurements)
- Talmud: Various tractates on Temple service
Modern Scholarship:
- Busink, Th. A. Der Tempel von Jerusalem von Salomo bis Herodes. Brill, 1970-1980.
- Hurowitz, Victor. I Have Built You an Exalted House: Temple Building in the Bible in Light of Mesopotamian and Northwest Semitic Writings. Sheffield Academic Press, 1992.
- Lundquist, John M. The Temple of Jerusalem: Past, Present, and Future. Praeger, 2008.
- Mazar, Benjamin. The Mountain of the Lord. Doubleday, 1975.
- Patai, Raphael. Man and Temple in Ancient Jewish Myth and Ritual. Ktav Publishing, 1967.
- Ritmeyer, Leen & Kathleen. The Quest: Revealing the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Carta, 2006.
- Ritmeyer, Leen. The Temples that Jerusalem Forgot. Institute for Biblical and Scientific Studies, 2016.
- Yadin, Yigael. The Temple Scroll. Random House, 1985.
- Levine, Lee I. Jerusalem: Portrait of the City in the Second Temple Period (538 B.C.E.-70 C.E.). Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
- Hayward, C.T.R. The Jewish Temple: A Non-Biblical Sourcebook. Routledge, 1996.
- Finkelstein, Israel & Silberman, Neil Asher. David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible's Sacred Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition. Free Press, 2006.
- Edersheim, Alfred. The Temple: Its Ministry and Services. Hendrickson Publishers, 1994 (orig. 1874).
- Cornuke, Robert. Temple: Amazing New Discoveries that Change Everything About the Location of Solomon's Temple. Bible Archaeology Search and Exploration Institute, 2014.
- Grabbe, Lester L. A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period (2 vols). T&T Clark, 2004-2008.
Second Temple Period Studies:
- Goodman, Martin. The Ruling Class of Judaea: The Origins of the Jewish Revolt Against Rome, A.D. 66-70. Cambridge, 1987.
- Sanders, E.P. Judaism: Practice and Belief, 63 BCE - 66 CE. Trinity Press, 1992.
- Schiffman, Lawrence H. From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism. Ktav, 1991.
- VanderKam, James C. An Introduction to Early Judaism. Eerdmans, 2001.
- Richardson, Peter. Herod: King of the Jews and Friend of the Romans. University of South Carolina Press, 1996.
Archaeological Reports:
- Reich, Ronny. Excavating the City of David
- Shanks, Hershel & Cole, Dan. Archaeology and the Bible
- Temple Mount Sifting Project Reports
Online Resources:
- The Temple Institute (templeinstitute.org)
- Biblical Archaeology Society
- Israel Antiquities Authority
- Jewish Virtual Library - Temple Section