Mjolnir
The Thunder-Striker, Hammer of the Storm God
Description and Appearance
Mjolnir, whose name means "crusher" or "grinder" in Old Norse, is the legendary hammer wielded by Thor, the Norse god of thunder, lightning, storms, and strength. It is arguably the most famous weapon in Norse mythology and one of the most powerful artifacts in the entire Norse mythological arsenal. More than just a weapon, Mjolnir serves as a symbol of Thor's divine power, a tool of consecration, and the ultimate defense of Asgard and Midgard against the forces of chaos.
The hammer's most distinctive physical feature is its unusually short handle. According to mythology, this imperfection arose during its creation when Loki, in the form of a fly, interfered with the dwarven smiths' work. Despite this flaw, Mjolnir remains a weapon of devastating effectiveness. The gods judged it the finest treasure ever made by dwarven hands, for its power far exceeded any limitation imposed by its shortened grip.
Physical Characteristics:
- Head: Massive and square-shaped, forged from uru-like mystical metal that can channel and amplify Thor's divine power
- Handle: Shorter than intended, requiring Thor to wield it one-handed (though he could use two hands given his strength)
- Material: Forged from metal mined from the heart of a dying star or from the primordial elements of creation
- Weight: Immeasurably heavy to mortals and most gods; only Thor (and occasionally others deemed worthy) can lift it
- Appearance: Often depicted with intricate knotwork patterns, runes of power, and a distinctive T-shaped or cross-shaped head
- Glow: Crackles with lightning and emanates a blue-white radiance when Thor channels his power through it
- Sound: Thunder accompanies its strikes, and the air itself seems to scream when Mjolnir is thrown
Archaeological finds throughout Scandinavia have revealed hundreds of small hammer-shaped amulets worn by Vikings and other Germanic peoples during the late Iron Age and Viking Age. These Mjolnir pendants were worn as symbols of Thor's protection, much as Christians wore crosses. The amulets show considerable variation in design—some T-shaped, others more hammer-like, some ornate with elaborate decoration, others simple and functional.
In artistic depictions from the Viking Age, Mjolnir sometimes appears more like a double-bladed axe or a club than a modern hammer. This reflects both the evolution of the myth and practical considerations of Viking-era metalworking and weapon design. The essential characteristics remain constant: it is a striking weapon of immense power, inseparable from Thor's identity as the defender of gods and humanity.
Creation Myth and Crafting
The creation of Mjolnir is one of the most famous tales in Norse mythology, recounted in the Skáldskaparmál section of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda. The story begins with an act of mischief by Loki, the trickster god, whose schemes inadvertently led to the creation of some of the gods' greatest treasures.
Loki's Mischief and the Wager
Loki, in one of his malicious moods, crept into the chambers of Thor's wife Sif while she slept and cut off her beautiful golden hair. When Thor discovered this outrage, his fury was so terrible that Loki feared for his life. To make amends, Loki swore he would travel to Svartalfheim (the realm of the dark elves or dwarves) and commission the most skilled smiths to create new hair for Sif—hair made of actual gold that would grow like natural hair.
Loki approached the sons of Ivaldi, master craftsmen who agreed to forge the golden hair. While they worked, they also created two additional treasures: Skidbladnir (a ship that could fold up small enough to fit in a pocket yet hold all the gods) and Gungnir (Odin's spear that never missed its mark).
Pleased with these treasures but unable to resist further mischief, Loki sought out two other dwarven brothers: Brokkr and Eitri (also called Sindri). He wagered his own head that these smiths could not create three treasures to equal those made by the sons of Ivaldi.
The Forging of Mjolnir
Brokkr and Eitri accepted the wager. Eitri instructed his brother Brokkr to work the bellows continuously without stopping, no matter what happened, while Eitri himself performed the mystical smith-work. They began by placing pigskin in the forge.
Loki, desperate to win the wager, transformed himself into a fly and began biting Brokkr to distract him. First, they created Gullinbursti, a golden boar that could run through air and water faster than any horse, its bristles shining to illuminate the darkest night.
Next, the brothers placed gold in the forge and created Draupnir, a golden arm ring that would drip eight new rings of equal weight every ninth night, making it a symbol of infinite wealth and prosperity.
Finally, they placed iron in the forge to create the mightiest work of all. As the metal heated and began to take shape, Loki bit Brokkr on the eyelid, drawing blood. For just an instant, Brokkr brushed at the fly and stopped pumping the bellows. In that moment, the hammer's handle was shortened.
— Prose Edda, Skáldskaparmál
The Judgment of the Gods
Loki and the dwarven brothers brought their treasures before the gods in Asgard. The gods served as judges, with Odin, Thor, and Freyr making the final determination. Each treasure was presented and its qualities explained:
- Sif received her golden hair, which grew naturally and was even more beautiful than before
- Odin received Gungnir, the spear that never missed, and Draupnir, the self-multiplying ring
- Freyr received Skidbladnir, the miraculous ship, and Gullinbursti, the golden boar
- Thor received Mjolnir, despite its shortened handle
The gods deliberated and reached their verdict: Mjolnir was the finest treasure of all. Despite its imperfect handle, no other weapon could compare to its power. With Mjolnir, Thor could defend Asgard against the giants who constantly threatened the gods. The hammer was deemed the greatest bulwark against the forces of chaos that would one day bring Ragnarök, the twilight of the gods.
Having lost the wager, Loki owed Brokkr his head. However, when Brokkr came to collect, Loki argued that while the dwarf could take his head, he had not wagered his neck—and Brokkr could not damage the neck to remove the head. Unable to take the head, Brokkr instead sewed Loki's lips shut with a leather thong, silencing the trickster's silver tongue, at least temporarily.
Mystical Properties of the Forging
The creation of Mjolnir involved more than mere metalwork. Dwarven smith-craft in Norse mythology was a form of magic, transforming base materials into artifacts of divine power. Some sources suggest the hammer was forged from metal that fell from the sky—perhaps meteorite iron, which the Vikings did occasionally use and considered magical.
Other traditions hold that the hammer's metal came from the heart of a dying star or was drawn from the primordial fires of Muspelheim, the realm of fire. The exact rituals and runes used in the forging remain known only to the dwarves, who guard such secrets jealously.
What is certain is that Mjolnir became more than a mere object—it was an extension of Thor's divine essence, a channel for his power over storms, lightning, and thunder. The hammer and the god became so intertwined that to speak of one was to invoke the other.
Powers and Abilities
Mjolnir possesses a vast array of supernatural powers that make it one of the most formidable weapons in any mythology. These abilities extend far beyond simple combat effectiveness, encompassing control over natural forces, magical properties, and even spiritual authority.
Synergy with Thor's Other Equipment
While Mjolnir is formidable alone, Thor also possesses two other items that amplify its power and allow him to wield it effectively:
- Járngreipr (Iron Gloves): These gauntlets allow Thor to grip Mjolnir's short handle properly and protect his hands from the divine energies that surge through the weapon. Without them, even Thor would find the hammer difficult to control.
- Megingjörð (Belt of Strength): This magical belt doubles Thor's already immense strength when worn, allowing him to deliver even more devastating blows with Mjolnir and to throw it with even greater force and accuracy.
Together, these three items form a complete system that makes Thor the most formidable warrior in Norse mythology, capable of facing threats that would destroy any other being, god or otherwise.
Associated Deity and Myths
Thor - The Thunder God
Thor, son of Odin and the earth goddess Jord, is the Norse god of thunder, lightning, storms, oak trees, strength, the protection of mankind, and also hallowing and fertility. Among the Norse gods, Thor was particularly beloved by common people, while the aristocracy and warriors often favored Odin. Thor represented reliability, protection, and straightforward heroism— qualities that ordinary folk valued highly.
Red-bearded and immensely strong, Thor possessed a straightforward, somewhat blunt personality. Unlike the cunning Odin or the eloquent Loki, Thor preferred direct action to schemes and strategies. When faced with a problem, his solution was usually to hit it with Mjolnir. This approach, while simple, proved remarkably effective.
Thor resided in Thrudheim ("Place of Might") in his hall called Bilskirnir ("Lightning"), the largest building known. He traveled across the sky in a chariot pulled by two massive goats, Tanngrisnir ("teeth grinder") and Tanngnjóstr ("teeth barer"), whose hoofbeats created the sound of thunder. When Thor was hungry on his journeys, he could slaughter and eat the goats, then resurrect them the next morning with Mjolnir, provided their bones remained intact.
Thor's Role as Protector
Thor's primary function was defending both Asgard (the realm of the gods) and Midgard (the realm of humans) from the giants and other hostile forces. The giants—representing chaos, winter, and destructive natural forces—constantly threatened to overrun the ordered cosmos. Thor stood as the bulwark against this chaos, making regular expeditions to Jotunheim (the giants' realm) to reduce their numbers.
This protective role made Thor enormously popular among the Norse people. Farmers prayed to him for protection of their fields and crops. Sailors called on him for safe passage. Warriors invoked him before battle. The Mjolnir amulet became a symbol of Thor's protection, much as the cross served for Christians.
Famous Myths Featuring Mjolnir:
1. The Theft of Mjolnir (Þrymskviða)
Perhaps the most famous Mjolnir tale tells of how the giant Thrym stole the hammer while Thor slept. Thrym demanded the goddess Freyja as his bride in exchange for Mjolnir's return. Freyja refused absolutely, so Loki devised a scheme: Thor would disguise himself as Freyja, veiled as a bride, and go to Thrym's hall for the "wedding."
Despite Thor's enormous appetite (he ate an entire ox and eight salmon at the wedding feast) and his fierce eyes showing through the veil, the ruse worked long enough for Thrym to call for Mjolnir to be brought forth to hallow the bride. The moment Thor's hands closed on his hammer, he threw off his disguise and proceeded to slaughter Thrym, his entire family, and all the giants present at the wedding. This myth, while comic in tone, demonstrates how vital Mjolnir was to Thor—without it, he was vulnerable and had to resort to humiliating deception.
2. Thor's Journey to Utgard
In this lengthy tale, Thor and Loki journey to the giant stronghold of Utgard, where the giant king Utgard-Loki subjects Thor to a series of apparently simple contests. Thor fails at every challenge: he cannot drain a drinking horn, cannot lift a cat from the ground, and cannot win a wrestling match against an old woman. Humiliated and angry, Thor prepares to attack with Mjolnir.
Before he can strike, Utgard-Loki reveals that the contests were illusions and magical tricks. The drinking horn connected to the ocean—and Thor had lowered sea levels worldwide. The cat was actually the Midgard Serpent in disguise—and Thor had nearly lifted it from its position wrapped around the world. The old woman was Old Age itself—and no one can defeat time, yet Thor forced her to one knee.
Utgard-Loki begs Thor not to use Mjolnir in anger, for the destruction would be catastrophic. He immediately hides his castle with illusions. Thor, frustrated but understanding that raw power isn't always sufficient, returns home. The tale shows that even Mjolnir has limitations— cunning and magic can sometimes confound even the mightiest weapon.
3. Thor's Fishing Trip (The Midgard Serpent)
Thor once went fishing with the giant Hymir, using an ox head as bait. He hooked the Midgard Serpent (Jörmungandr), the massive snake that encircles the world—and one of Loki's monstrous children, destined to kill Thor at Ragnarök. As Thor pulled the serpent up and raised Mjolnir to strike the killing blow, the terrified Hymir cut the fishing line, and the serpent sank back into the depths.
Some versions say Thor killed Hymir in anger for robbing him of his victory. Others say he threw Mjolnir at the descending serpent but missed. This encounter foreshadows the final battle between Thor and Jörmungandr at Ragnarök, when both will kill each other—Thor with Mjolnir and the serpent with its venom.
4. The Consecration of Baldr's Funeral
When Baldr, the most beloved of the gods, was killed and placed on his funeral ship, Thor consecrated the pyre with Mjolnir. As he performed this sacred rite, a dwarf named Litr ran in front of him. In his grief and rage, Thor kicked the dwarf into the flames. This tale shows Mjolnir's role in sacred ceremonies, not just warfare—the hammer that splits giant skulls also hallows funerals, marriages, and births.
5. Thor and the Giant Hrungnir
Hrungnir, the strongest of all giants, challenged Thor to single combat. Hrungnir armed himself with a massive stone club and a whetstones shield. When Thor arrived with thunder and lightning crackling around him, he hurled Mjolnir from a great distance. Hrungnir threw his whetstone in response.
The two missiles met in mid-air. Mjolnir shattered the whetstone, sending fragments across the world (explaining why whetstone fragments are found in many places). The hammer continued onward and crushed Hrungnir's skull, killing him instantly. However, a whetstone fragment lodged in Thor's head, causing him pain ever after. The giant's body fell on Thor, pinning him—only his son Magni was strong enough to lift it off. This demonstrates that while Mjolnir can kill any enemy, even Thor is not invulnerable in battle.
Symbolism and Spiritual Meaning
Protection and Warding
In Viking Age Scandinavia, Mjolnir symbols served as powerful protective amulets. Archaeological evidence shows that people wore Mjolnir pendants continuously from childhood to death. Hammers were raised at births to protect the newborn, at weddings to bless the union and ensure fertility, and at funerals to guide the deceased to the afterlife.
The protective power of Mjolnir extended beyond individuals. Carved or painted hammer symbols adorned ships, houses, and boundary markers. Raising a Mjolnir symbol and invoking Thor would hallow a space, claiming it for the gods and civilized order against chaos and hostile forces.
Fertility and Renewal
Despite being a weapon of war, Mjolnir also symbolized fertility and life-giving power. Thor's connection to thunderstorms linked him to the rain that makes crops grow. His hammer's ability to consecrate marriages explicitly connected it to human fertility and the continuation of family lines.
The resurrection of Thor's goats demonstrates Mjolnir's power over death and renewal. This cyclical pattern—destruction followed by restoration—mirrors the agricultural cycle and the Norse understanding of the cosmos as existing in constant tension between order and chaos, creation and destruction.
Sacred Authority and Right Order
When Thor raised Mjolnir over an oath, that oath became inviolable. When he consecrated a marriage, that union received divine sanction. The hammer represented not just physical power but legitimate spiritual authority—the right to bless, to curse, to judge, and to enforce cosmic law.
This authority derived from Thor's role as maintainer of order. The giants represented not just physical threats but chaos itself—the forces of entropy and destruction that would reduce the cosmos to primordial disorder. Thor with Mjolnir stood against this dissolution, preserving the structures that allowed civilized life to exist.
Worthiness and Virtue
The fact that only the worthy could lift Mjolnir made it a symbol of moral and spiritual virtue. Physical strength alone was insufficient—the would-be wielder needed some essential quality that made them suitable to wield such power. In Thor's case, this worthiness derived from his unwavering commitment to protecting those weaker than himself.
This concept has resonated through modern adaptations, where the question "Who is worthy to lift Mjolnir?" becomes a test of character. Different versions suggest different criteria— courage, selflessness, willingness to sacrifice, dedication to justice—but all agree that Mjolnir judges the heart, not merely the body.
The Common Man's God
Unlike Odin's spear Gungnir (associated with rulers, warriors, and the aristocracy) or Freyr's magical sword (associated with prosperity and kingship), Mjolnir was a worker's tool elevated to divine status. A hammer was something every farmer, craftsman, and builder used daily. Thor's weapon was thus the people's weapon—straightforward, reliable, and practical.
This symbolism made Thor and Mjolnir enormously popular among common folk. While chieftains might sacrifice to Odin for victory in battle or political cunning, farmers and laborers prayed to Thor for protection, good harvests, and fair weather. Mjolnir represented the power of honest work and direct action over cleverness and scheming.
Christian Opposition and Survival
During the Christianization of Scandinavia, the Mjolnir pendant became a deliberate symbol of resistance to the new faith. While Christians wore crosses, traditionalists wore hammers. Some artisans even created molds that could cast both symbols, allowing them to serve both religious communities.
Eventually, Christianity prevailed, but elements of Thor worship persisted in folk customs. The blessing gestures, the protective signs drawn in the air, the invocation at important life events—these continued, simply transferred to the cross and Christian saints. Thor's Thursday (Thor's day) survives in English and other Germanic languages.
Modern Revival and Neo-Paganism
In modern Heathenry and Norse neo-paganism, Mjolnir has experienced a dramatic revival. Practitioners wear Mjolnir pendants as signs of faith, use hammer symbols to consecrate sacred spaces, and invoke Thor for protection and strength. For many, Mjolnir represents connection to ancestral heritage and pre-Christian European spirituality.
The symbol has also been adopted by various nationalist and folk movements, sometimes appropriated by extremist groups—a troubling development that most mainstream Heathen communities strongly reject. The challenge facing modern Thor worshippers is reclaiming their symbols from hate groups while maintaining historical authenticity.
Modern Depictions in Culture
Marvel Comics and Cinematic Universe
The most visible modern depiction of Mjolnir comes from Marvel Comics and the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Created by Stan Lee, Larry Lieber, and Jack Kirby in 1962, Marvel's Thor wields a version of Mjolnir with specific rules: "Whosoever holds this hammer, if he be worthy, shall possess the power of Thor." This worthiness enchantment, placed by Odin, is not found in original Norse mythology but has become inseparable from modern perceptions of the weapon.
In Marvel continuity, Mjolnir is forged from Uru metal in the heart of a dying star, amplifies Thor's natural abilities, and serves as a channel for his lightning powers. The MCU films added visual flair with elaborate hammer spins, flight mechanics, and spectacular lightning effects. The question of worthiness became central to multiple storylines, with characters like Captain America, Vision, and Jane Foster proving able to lift the hammer.
Marvel's Mjolnir was destroyed by Hela in "Thor: Ragnarok" (2017) but later reappeared in "Avengers: Endgame" (2019) through time travel. The hammer's destruction and restoration symbolized Thor's character arc from relying on external sources of power to recognizing his inherent divine nature.
Video Games
Mjolnir appears across countless video games with varying depictions:
- God of War (2018) and Ragnarök (2022): Thor appears as an antagonist wielding Mjolnir with devastating effect, portrayed as a broken, alcoholic enforcer for Odin. The game's version emphasizes the hammer's brutal destructive power and its corrupting effect on Thor's character.
- Assassin's Creed Valhalla (2020): Players can obtain Mjolnir after collecting Thor's complete armor set, gaining powerful lightning abilities. The game treats the hammer as a historical artifact with mystical properties.
- Smite: Thor appears as a playable character whose abilities all center on Mjolnir's powers—throwing it, spinning it to create barriers, and calling down lightning.
- Age of Mythology: Players can call upon Thor's powers, with Mjolnir appearing as a devastating god power that damages all enemy units.
- Terraria, Minecraft (modded), and others: Mjolnir appears as a craftable or findable weapon with throwing mechanics and lightning generation.
Literature and Poetry
Mjolnir features in numerous works of modern fantasy and historical fiction:
- Rick Riordan's "Magnus Chase" series presents Thor as a somewhat buffoonish but genuinely powerful deity, with Mjolnir serving as a source of comic relief due to Thor's possessiveness
- Neil Gaiman's "Norse Mythology" retells classical Mjolnir stories for modern audiences, including the theft by Thrym and the fishing expedition
- J.R.R. Tolkien drew on Norse mythology extensively, and while Mjolnir doesn't appear directly, its influence can be seen in magical weapons like Glamdring and Orcrist
- Numerous fantasy novels feature hammers inspired by Mjolnir, from Brandon Sanderson's Sunhammer to various role-playing game supplements
Music and Metal Culture
Mjolnir holds special significance in heavy metal culture, particularly Viking metal and folk metal genres. Bands like Amon Amarth, Enslaved, Bathory, and Týr frequently reference Thor and his hammer in their lyrics and imagery. The hammer symbolizes power, defiance, and connection to pre-Christian European heritage.
Album covers and concert backdrops regularly feature Mjolnir imagery. Some performers wear Mjolnir pendants on stage, and the raised hammer has become a gesture of solidarity in metal communities—a secular equivalent to the religious gesture, meaning "we stand together" or "stay strong."
Popular Culture Symbols
Beyond explicit mythological references, hammer symbolism derived from Mjolnir appears throughout popular culture:
- The phrase "bringing the hammer down" meaning to enforce justice or punishment
- Hammer imagery in military unit insignia and symbols of strength
- Sports teams named "Thunder" often incorporate hammer or lightning imagery
- The hammer emoji (🔨) sometimes substitutes for Mjolnir in social media
- "Thor's Hammer" as a name for powerful weapons, tools, and equipment across industries
Theme Parks and Attractions
Several theme parks feature Mjolnir-related attractions. Most notably, Disneyland and Disney World include exhibitions where visitors can attempt to lift a prop Mjolnir embedded in stone, with the hammer occasionally "releasing" for photos. The Isle of Arran in Scotland features a "Thor's Stone" allegedly thrown by the thunder god himself.
Related Weapons and Items
Other Norse Weapons
Mjolnir exists within a context of other legendary Norse weapons, each with distinct properties:
- Gungnir (Odin's Spear): Forged by the same dwarves who made Sif's golden hair, this spear never misses its target and always strikes with lethal force. Odin wields it in his role as war god and all-father.
- Gram (Sigurd's Sword): Reforged from his father's broken blade, Gram could cut through anvils and was used to slay the dragon Fafnir. It represents the hero's personal power rather than divine authority.
- Tyrfing: A cursed sword that could cut through anything, never miss a strike, and could not be sheathed until it had drawn blood. Unlike Mjolnir's protective role, Tyrfing brought destruction to its wielders.
- Dainsleif (Högni's Sword): Forged by dwarves, this sword could not be sheathed until it killed someone, never missed, and wounds from it never healed. A darker parallel to Mjolnir's inevitable strikes.
- Freyr's Sword: A blade that could fight on its own, Freyr foolishly gave it away for love of the giantess Gerðr. Without it, he will be defenseless at Ragnarök— showing the danger of being separated from one's weapon, a fate Thor nearly suffered when Thrym stole Mjolnir.
Thunder Weapons in Other Mythologies
- Zeus's Lightning Bolt (Greek): Forged by the Cyclopes, Zeus's thunderbolt serves a similar function to Mjolnir—a thrown weapon that returns to its wielder and commands storms. However, it's depicted as a spear or javelin rather than a hammer.
- Indra's Vajra (Hindu): This lightning weapon is sometimes depicted as a club or mace, other times as a ritual object. Like Mjolnir, it represents divine power over storms and is the primary weapon of a thunder deity.
- Raijin's Drums (Japanese): The Japanese thunder god creates thunder by beating drums, a different approach but similar domain to Thor's hammer-created thunder.
- Perun's Axe (Slavic): The Slavic thunder god wielded an axe that created lightning, closely paralleling Thor's role and weapon in neighboring cultures.
- Taranis's Wheel (Celtic): The Celtic thunder god's symbol was a solar wheel, sometimes depicted as a weapon he would hurl like Thor throws Mjolnir.
Modern Fictional Weapons Inspired by Mjolnir
- Warhammer 40,000 Thunder Hammers: Massive power hammers that generate energy fields, used by the Emperor's finest warriors
- World of Warcraft's Sulfuras: A legendary hammer that shares Mjolnir's elemental properties
- Guild Wars 2's Mjolnir: A legendary hammer obtainable by players
- Dragon Age's Sulevin Blade: While a sword, it shares Mjolnir's "returning to hand" property
- The Gravity Hammer (Halo series): A massive hammer that generates shockwaves, inspired by Mjolnir's devastating impact force
Related Across the Mythos
Thor
Thunder God
Primary wielder, son of Odin
Norse Tradition
Germanic and Viking belief systems
Gungnir
Odin's Spear
Never misses its target
🌍 Cross-Cultural Thunder Weapons
Bibliography and Further Reading
- Sturluson, Snorri. The Prose Edda. Trans. Jesse Byock. Penguin Classics, 2005.
- Larrington, Carolyne (trans.). The Poetic Edda. Oxford World's Classics, 2014.
- Davidson, H.R. Ellis. Gods and Myths of Northern Europe. Penguin Books, 1964.
- Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford University Press, 2001.
- Simek, Rudolf. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Trans. Angela Hall. D.S. Brewer, 1993.
- Turville-Petre, E.O.G. Myth and Religion of the North: The Religion of Ancient Scandinavia. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964.
- Dumézil, Georges. Gods of the Ancient Northmen. Ed. Einar Haugen. University of California Press, 1973.
- Crossley-Holland, Kevin. The Norse Myths. Pantheon Books, 1980.
- Gaiman, Neil. Norse Mythology. W.W. Norton & Company, 2017.
- Price, Neil S. The Viking Way: Magic and Mind in Late Iron Age Scandinavia. Oxbow Books, 2019.
- Jesch, Judith. The Viking Diaspora. Routledge, 2015.
- Abram, Christopher. Myths of the Pagan North: The Gods of the Norsemen. Continuum, 2011.
- Graham-Campbell, James. The Viking World. Frances Lincoln, 2013.
- Fitzhugh, William W. and Elisabeth I. Ward (eds.). Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga. Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000.
- DuBois, Thomas A. Nordic Religions in the Viking Age. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999.