⚰️ Babylonian Afterlife

Geography and Appearance

The underworld lay beneath the earth, accessed through caves, crevices, or special gateways in the western mountains (where the sun descended each night). It was called by many names: Irkalla, the Land of No Return, the House of Dust, the Great Below, Aralu, and Kur.

Descriptions from various texts paint a bleak picture:

• A dark house where residents "see no light, dwelling in darkness"
• Where "dust is their food and clay their sustenance"
• Where the dead are "clothed like birds with feathers for garments"
• Where "they see no light, they dwell in darkness"
• A place of silence, stillness, and eternal gloom

The Rulers - Ereshkigal and Nergal

Ereshkigal, the "Queen of the Great Below," ruled the underworld with absolute authority. Sister to Ishtar, she was fearsome and merciless. In her realm, even the greatest gods had no power. When Ishtar descended, Ereshkigal struck her dead with the "curse of death" and hung her corpse on a hook like meat. Only intervention from above saved the goddess.

Nergal, god of war, plague, and pestilence, became Ereshkigal's consort. According to myth, he originally visited the underworld as a messenger but insulted Ereshkigal. When she demanded his punishment, he descended with demons, overpowered her, and claimed the underworld throne. Rather than fight, Ereshkigal offered to marry him and share rulership. Together they reign over the dead, with Nergal's violent nature complementing Ereshkigal's absolute authority.

The Divine Bureaucracy of Death

The underworld operated like a dark mirror of earthly bureaucracy, with various divine officials:

• Nedu: Chief gatekeeper who guards the seven gates
• Namtar: Ereshkigal's vizier and plague demon who brings disease
• The Anunnaki of the Underworld: Seven judges who determine the dead's fate (though judgment seems based on proper burial rites rather than morality)
• Various demons: Enforcers and guards of the underworld's laws

The Shadow Life of the Dead

The dead (eṭemmu) existed as shadows of their former selves. They dwelled in darkness, ate dust and clay, and wore feathers like birds. There was no joy, no pleasure, no meaningful activity - only a diminished, ghostly existence.

From the Epic of Gilgamesh, the ghost of Enkidu describes the underworld to his friend:

"Did you see him who had one son? ... He weeps bitterly at the peg which was driven into his wall.
Did you see him who had two sons? ... He sits on two bricks and eats bread.
Did you see him who had three sons? ... He drinks water from the waterskins of the deep.
Did you see him who had four sons? ... His heart rejoices like a man with four asses.
Did you see him who had five sons? ... Like a good scribe he is active, he enters the palace.
Did you see him who had six sons? ... His heart rejoices like a man with a plough.
Did you see him who had seven sons? ... Like a companion of the gods, he sits on a throne and listens to judgments."

This passage reveals that one's comfort in the afterlife depended on the number of surviving sons who could provide offerings. Many descendants meant abundant offerings and relatively better existence; few or no descendants meant suffering from neglect.

Categories of the Dead

Those properly buried with descendants: Received regular kispum offerings of food and water, enjoyed relative comfort (as much as possible in the House of Dust)

Those improperly buried or forgotten: Suffered from hunger and thirst, their eṭemmu potentially rising to haunt the living

Those who died violent deaths: Had especially troubled afterlives, their spirits particularly dangerous to the living

The childless: The worst fate - no descendants meant no offerings, resulting in eternal hunger and torment

Communication with the Dead

The living could communicate with the dead through necromancy, summoning spirits through rituals performed at grave sites. The eṭemmu could provide information, warnings, or curses. However, such contact was dangerous and required proper magical protection.

Monthly kispum offerings served both to sustain the ancestors and maintain positive relationships with them. Neglected ancestors might become malevolent, causing illness or misfortune to their living descendants.

Rare Exceptions - Divine Intervention

Only through direct divine intervention could anyone leave:

• Ishtar's Descent: The goddess Ishtar descended to attend a funeral but was struck dead by Ereshkigal. Only intervention from Ea, who created magical beings immune to the underworld's power, secured her release. Even so, she required a substitute - her consort Tammuz took her place, creating the seasonal cycle of his descent (winter) and return (spring).
• Adapa: A legendary sage who accidentally broke the South Wind's wing was summoned before Anu. Through trickery and Ea's counsel, he avoided eating the "food of death" that would have trapped him in the divine realm.
• Enkidu's Ghost: In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Enkidu's ghost was allowed to rise temporarily to speak with Gilgamesh, but only as a shade, not truly alive, and he could not stay.

The Inevitability of Death

Babylonian afterlife belief emphasized death's universality and inevitability. Rich or poor, king or slave, all ended in the House of Dust. This democratic afterlife (at least in terms of destination) meant that life's value lay entirely in earthly achievements and relationships, not in hope of reward after death.

The Epic of Gilgamesh powerfully expresses this: When the hero seeks immortality after Enkidu's death, the alewife Siduri advises him: "Gilgamesh, whither are you wandering? Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let death be his share, and life withheld in their own hands."

The Importance of Descendants

Since afterlife comfort depended on offerings from living descendants, producing children (especially sons) became a religious duty. Childlessness was a tragedy not just for the living but for eternity. This belief reinforced the importance of family continuity and ancestor veneration.

Proper Burial as Sacred Obligation

Ensuring proper burial for the dead was both family duty and societal obligation. Denying someone burial was a severe punishment. Kings boasted in inscriptions of giving proper burial even to enemies, demonstrating their piety and civilization.